Slavery and the Abolition Movement - Jamaican History (Part 4)

Over time, Jamaican slaves progressively resisted their oppressors. Passive resistance included poisoning their masters, destroying property and killing the children of their masters’; active resistance took place through open rebellions and fleeing to the Maroons’ Mountains.

Three classes emerged. The bottom class was black Africans, which was divided between domestic and field slaves. Domestic slaves cared for the houses of their white masters where the field slaves worked under the sun harvesting the crops. Black slaves were deprived of legal rights and humane treatment.

The middle class were poor whites, often British convicts who worked as de facto slaves for up to 10 years. If they were able to survive the ten years, they might rise up in status and be a petty trader or craftsman. The upper class was made up of white British planters and wealthy merchants.

During the 1700’s, the importation of slaves was dependent on the triangular trade and closely linked to sugar. By the beginning of the 19th century, the population more than quadrupled, with blacks consisting of over 90% of the population.

Pressure mounted on the Brits from abolitionists. Minor revolts and protests became a more frequent occurrence towards the end of the 18th century and it was more difficult for London to overlook it. Three Jamaicans were involved in the landslide case in London that saw blacks recognized as free men once they set foot in a free country.

The banning of the slave trade in 1807 was the beginning of the end of formal slavery. Given the momentum of the abolitionist movement, the British planters were no longer able to silence the cries of slaves.

By 1831, slavery was still in full force, although pressure was mounting on the colonial bosses. Reverend Samuel ‘Daddy’ Sharp, a powerful orator, organized a national strike day for slaves on Christmas Day; but, the British found out about it beforehand and prevented it from happening at any cost. The slaves responded with arson and other acts of violence killing 14 whites. The British responded by burning villages and killing 500 blacks. The stress was becoming too much for the British to bear.

Slavery was abolished all together in Jamaica by 1838. It led to construction of Free Villages and an escalation in peasant farming. Although planters feared a mass migration of ex-slaves back to Africa, only ten percent of ex-slaves returned home in the entire Caribbean region.

Legally, Jamaica was now a free country, but little changed in the lives of the ex-slaves. Given workers enhanced freedoms, planters’ profits decreased. Simultaneously, Cuba (one of the last to abolish slavery) began producing more sugar, which cut into Jamaican production and lowered wages.

Given workers limited access to the factors of production, they were still bound to working for the same old boys club at wages determined by the same old planters.

Led by the Black Baptist preacher Paul Bogle and his strong social justice oratory, workers eventually rebelled at Morant Bay in the 1860’s to demand an end to overwork and abuse. Over 1000 black workers were killed in response to the rebellion and this time around, London did hear the dissidents’ pleas.

The next two Governors led the push for Jamaican led development, including changing the capital to Kingston, building a number of schools (which are still used) and improving the water system. They also tried to diversify the economy by producing bananas and Blue Mountain coffee – some of the best coffee in the world.

Maroon Wars

Maroon Wars (1720-38 & 1795-96)



The Maroons continued to inhabit the inland mountains while the British settled in. The Maroons were former African slaves who had escaped the Spanish and held their own during the initial British invasion. Living isolated from the new Jamaica, the Maroons retained their African culture. Developing confidence, their population grew as they added new slave escapees to their communities to the point where they controlled much of the Jamaican interior.

The British fought back en masse on two occasions in what has become known as the 1st and 2nd Maroon Wars. Because the British were unfamiliar with the mountainous interior, they brought in the Mosquito people from Nicaragua and British bloodhounds to compete with the brave Maroons in the first War.

A guerrilla like battle ensued in tough terrain and left the two sides without clear winner. Eventually, Governor Edward Trelawny (of whom the Parish of Trelawny is named) worked out a settlement with the Maroons, which recognized the Maroons as a self sufficient community with rights to their lands.

The war created Jamaican heroes and heroines like Nanny who bravely fought off the British to maintain their autonomy and territory. In reality, this was a huge victory for the Maroons, which still brings assured smiles to the faces of Jamaicans.

The settlement lasted 57 years until 1795, when a Brit violated the agreement by beating a Maroon in Montego Bay. The settlement clearly stated that any Maroon suspected of wrongdoing was to be sent back to his own people for trial, not flogged in British territory.

This led to the 2nd Maroon war, which saw the British reverse their poor fortunes and achieve an efficient victory. Those Maroons who participated in the war were sent off to Nova Scotia in modern day Canada. Eventually, they were sent to Sierra Leone and Ghana, while those Maroons who didn’t participate in the war continued living on their own in the mountains.

British & Sugar - Jamaican History (Part 3)

Jamaica was no longer of secondary significance as it had been under Spanish rule. It was now considered a treasured jewel in the British Crown “lying in the very belly of all commerce.” British Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell saw its great potential and offered land to British settlers, enticing 1600 new Brits to settle in Jamaica.

Riches came flooding in from pirates, who used Port Royal as their home base. Kingston became known as one of the richest and nefarious cities in the entire world. That was, until 1692 when the great earthquake would shatter two-thirds of the city of Port Royal. The sinking of Port Royal symbolized the end of major piracy in the Caribbean.

The end of piracy was also the genesis of mass importation of African slaves. In Jamaica, they came mostly from the Coromantees peoples, who were originally from the Gold Coast, Benin and Mandingoes. They were used to work on the increasingly profitable British Sugar plantations as part of the triangular trade.

The triangle started with the Brits exporting goods to African Kings. The African Kings would deliver slaves to the ports in West Africa to be picked up by European ships. After being shipped across the Atlantic, the slaves would produce goods. Their finished products (sugar, tobacco, molasses & rum) would be sent back to Britain for consumption. The slaves were used as a commodity, placed in circumstances absent of human dignity.

All the while, Jamaica profited – profited from slaves and trade. When trade prospered, it was on the backs of slaves. When trade suffered because of exogenous variables (like Britain’s wars abroad), the slaves were punished. Slaves were punished by lashing, maiming and ultimately death completely at the discretion of their paternalistic European masters. Such was the nature of colonialism.

Globally, the demand for sugar soared; at times it was worth its weight in gold. Between 1720 and 1770, British demand increased 5 times. This surge in demand came from Europeans new found pleasure in jam, cookies, tea (sweetened of course) and cocoa.

I find two things ironic in this picture. First, one of Britain’s most defined traditions of afternoon tea is really adopted abroad from (maybe Canada still has hope!). Secondly, it’s ironic that something as sweet as sugar was made possible and available through something as acidic as slavery.

Jamaica was experiencing a sugar revolution and the entire country centered on its production. Really, sugar was the predominant reason people settled (by choice or force) on the island for centuries. For a while, Jamaica became the world’s largest sugar producer. Eventually, they would diversify their exports to include molasses and rum (both sugar based products), but sugar has remained a critical component of Jamaica’s economy to this day.

Lime Cay Island, just outside of Kingston Harbour

Captain Morgan

the notorious pirate patriarch

One of the most treacherous and profitable privateers that lurked the Caribbean seas, went by the name of Captain Henry Morgan (the guy from the rum bottles, or known as Captain Mo’s according to Scotty and Mike). Captain Morgan was actually a privateer as were the whole lot of them, until them were decommissioned by the British, where they were demoted to pirates.

Henry Morgan’s was no ordinary man; his uncle Edward Morgan, also Welsh, was one of the first Governors of Jamaica. Unsuspectingly, the world’s most notorious pirate came from privileged heritage. By the time he was a grown man, Captain Morgan was commissioned by the British Colonial Government in Jamaica to set sail to Haiti and Panama in a calculated move to solidify British control in the Caribbean.

Following the completion of his mission, Captain Morgan went beyond his mandate and plundered Port-au-Prince, Haiti. He then went on to ransack Portobello, Panama, infuriating the Panamanian Governor. He returned to Port Royal, the contemporary Jamaican capital, to celebrate his victories.
At this time, the British sent the Port Royal HMS Oxford as a gift to protect Port Royal (the Harbour in Kingston Jamaica). Port Royal gave it to Captain Morgan to further his privateering missions. Captain Morgan nearly died when his crew unintentionally blew up the new HMS Oxford from Britain while partying, having accidentally lit the ammunition depot. Britain would never hear of it…

Captain Morgan continued his looting in Cuba and Maracaibo (Venezuela), in spite of Spanish threats. The Jamaican British Governor responded to his wicked antics by making him Commander-in-Chief of all Jamaican naval vessels. He was commissioned to destroy all Spanish ships and was expected to bring back 10% of any plundered loot from those Spaniards swimming in gold and riches.

After wreaking havoc on Cuba, he returned to Panama and proceeded in burning the capital, Panama City. This turned out to be a violation of a Peace Treaty signed between Spain and Britain. News traveled back to Spain and then Britain. Captain Morgan was arrested and summoned back to Britain for his antics.

After claiming ignorance of the Treaty, Captain Morgan was Knighted by the Crown and sent back to Jamaica, this time as Lieutenant Governor. Governor Morgan spent the rest of his days as the legitimate ruler of Jamaica. His latest commission from the Crown was to decommission the privateers in the region (the same crews he was originally responsible for). Some turned over their guns, while others ignored the order and spitefully set sail on the seas in search of greater treasure. Arrrrrrr, true pirates indeed!!

Captain Morgan gained a notorious reputation for his drunken rowdiness. He is thought to have died of liver failure, due to his excessive drinking. His grave in the Palisadoes cemetery sunk along with two thirds of the city of Port Royal, in the 1692 earthquake beneath the sea. The sunken city is now one of the most famous underwater cultural heritage sites in the world.

Spanish Rule - Jamaican History (Part 2)

Within a decade of Columbus landing in Jamaica, the Spanish had conquered the island. The Arawaks/Caribs perished quickly from European diseases or were enslaved to work on Spanish plantations. Some were killed.

On the American mainland, slavery acted as a way to reconcile the dichotomous goals of gold and God. Jamaica lacked the gold, but there was potential to spread Christianity; as such, the Roman Catholics were unleashed and slaves were shipped from Africa to be Christianized. The slaves also filled the void of labor left over after the indigenous Arawaks perished due to internal conflict, disease and brutal conditions under Spanish slavery.

One of the ships carrying slaves was called Jesus. This has not been forgotten by some in Jamaica (like by the Rastas) and serves as an incredulous example of the wooly objectives of the missionaries and slave traders.

Even without gold, the Spaniards kept the island of Jamaica as an outpost for their New World Empire while it focused most of its energies on gold rich colonies like Mexico and Peru. They settled the island and imported sugar cane (from Asia), oranges, and bananas. They also brought goats, cattle and hogs. Another familiar Jamaican fruit, breadfruit was brought later by a planter, Captain Bligh from India for the slaves. One roasted breadfruit was (and still is) able to fill a worker for 2-3 days, making it an invaluable input for the planters.

Spain’s influence was felt across the world, but by the 1600’s it became apparent they were stretched too thin. Cracks began to show and the Dutch, French and British scored big. Britain firmly claimed Jamaica by 1655 after failing to capture modern day Haiti/Dominican Republic from the Spaniards and held Jamaica formally until 1962. The final push was led by the British naval Admiral, Sir William Penn (father of William Penn, the namesake of Pennsylvania, who was born in St. Thomas Parish, Jamaica).

Almost all of the Spaniards either surrendered or fled the island to Cuba in canoes (imagine eh? taking canoes around the Caribbean…I wonder if they used certified lifejackets). The Maroons, who consisted mostly of rebellious escaped African slaves, were the only ones who escaped the British on the island. They fled to the mountains and would harass the British for centuries (that’s quite a feat, really).

Britain did receive help in capturing the Island and from an unlikely ally. Pirates of the Caribbean were instrumental in helping consolidate British rule and were even granted authority under the Crown through the “Letters of Marque” to raid and plunder enemy vessels (British Enemy = French + Spanish).

The Indigenous Arawaks - Jamaican History (Part 1)

The next few articles will be a brief summary of Jamaica's history, which is both rich and scandelous....


Thus, the Arawaks (Taino Arawak), a peaceful people (said to be of the least aggressive people in the Americas) roamed the island for a couple thousand years before Columbus accidentally bumped into the island in 1494 on his second voyage to the new world. The name Jamaica is derived from the Arawak word “Xaymaca”, which means “land of wood and water.”

Columbus said of the Arawaks after being shipwrecked off the island of Hispaniola “On hearing the news the king wept, showing great sorrow at our disaster. Then he sent all the inhabitants of the village out to the ship in many large canoes….he himself, with his brothers and relatives, did everything they could both in the ship and on shore to arrange for our comfort….I assure your Highness that nowhere in Castille would one receive such kindness or anything like it.

The Arawak King had all our possessions brought together near his palace and kept there until some houses had been emptied to receive them. He appointed armed men to guard them, and made them watch over them right through the night. And he and everyone else in the land wept for our misfortune as if greatly concerned by it.

They were so affectionate and have so little greed and are in all ways so amenable that I assure your Highness that there is in my opinion no better people and no better land in all the world.

They love their neighbors as themselves and their way of speaking is the sweetest in the world, always gentle and smiling. Both men and women go naked as their mothers bore them; but your Highness must believe me when I say that their behavior to one another is very good and their king keeps marvelous state, yet with a certain kind of modesty that is a pleasure to behold, as is everything else here.”[i]

According to Columbus’s accounts, it sounds like the Arawaks had it all figured out. If they were still around, they’d be the envy of the world. Problem is, they’re not (damn Caribs!). Being unable to defend themselves against intruders effectively may have made such a paradise forever impossible.

In the Arawak culture, Chiefs had real authority and prestige, but little political power. Political power was seen as largely unimportant among the Arawaks. The society did not have a perpetual elite, nor group of people (including the Chief) who accumulated great relative wealth.

The society functioned peacefully and sustainably on its own, but was not organized in a manner that would withstand any kind of attack, like that of the Carib invasion. If the Chiefs’ heirs showed no promise for leadership, he/she was rejected in preference for a locally elected member of the common people. The Arawaks were socially and politically quite flexible.

The original crops harvested on the island were corn (though unimportant), potatoes, sweet cassava (manioc), peanuts, peppers, pumpkins, beans and arrowroots. They also ate coneys, agouti, lizards, spiders and various insects & reptiles. They fished with nets, hooks and spears’, though fishing was secondary to agriculture. Fishing was seen as a luxury to supplement the successful pursuit of agriculture. The food base was sufficient to feed the existing population.

When Columbus described them as “a people short of everything” it was only European colonial ignorance, reflecting differences of culture and material wealth. The Arawaks did not parish due to an inability to survive, but rather on weaknesses in the way of warfare.

Their conquerors were none other than the vicious Caribs who are the namesake of the Caribbean. They were considered by Columbus to be Cannibals…the similarity in the sound of Caribbean and cannibal is no coincidence. While on the surface the Caribs appeared similar to the Arawaks, they possessed a fundamental distinction. They were warriors!

As conquerors they did a great deal of moving around. Migration caused less uniformity in their customs and traditions. Their society was simpler than the Arawaks, who had developed a very sophisticated social structure and identity.

The Caribs eventually inherited much of the Arawak culture by absorbing Arawak women and children into their society through the acts of war (in my opinion, Canadians are wise to do the same, minus the acts of war bit and gender slant…). Many Caribs were as a result bilingual. By 1500, most of the Arawak’s had been destroyed or incorporated into the Carib nation.

Given their military successes and heavy doses of migration, the Caribs must have been experiencing great internal transformations. Because of this, they lacked firm identity or crystallization in social forms and customs.

The Caribs were undergoing significant internal change toward the end of the 1400’s. As such, it is little wonder they were a notch weaker by the time the Spaniards came.







[i] Knight, Franklin. The Caribbean: The Genesis of a Fragment Nationalism. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978. page 13.

In the beginning

Hello-lo!
Over the next six months, I'll be using this site to share stories, happenings and photos from the island of Jamaica. Facebook just seemd too complicated for this simpleton, so I'm sorry if this inconveniences anyone. Hope to hear from you too!
God bless!
Daniel.